Technical Intelligence, Korea to the Present

Technical Intelligence, Korea to the Present

World War II veteran

Technical intelligence pioneer reminisces over vintage treasures discovered during visit at the Air Force Museum

Rob Young

NIC Historian

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio

A silver-haired gentleman gazes at the old German fighter sitting quietly in the Air Force Museum. "The four cannons in that interceptor were devastating," he remarks, looking at the nose of the Messerschmitt Me-262 fighter. "If the Germans had used that jet correctly, with its optimally matched speed, guns and ammunition...well, the U.S. losses would have been fantastic!"

Fortunately for the Allies, Hitler had an obsession with using the jet as a bomber. This delayed introduction of the world's first operational jet fighter until it was too late for it to deliver an unacceptably high rate of losses on the Allied bombers. With the capabilities of the Me-262 and its cannons, an earlier debut might literally have effected the outcome of the air war. A display case holding various German aircraft weapons catches his attention. He stares at the unusually stubby, black cannon form the Me-262. Victor Bilek knows firsthand the highly destructive capability of the Mk-108 30mm cannon in the case before him.

More than 50 years ago, he was the Army Air Force's expert that exploited the weapon after some were obtained in an amazing effort to bring captured examples of advanced German jet and rocket powered aircraft to the United States. Operation Lusty enabled scientific and technical experts to make detailed assessments of this advanced technology in U.S. military facilities.

As part of his exploitation of the Me-262's weapons, he used an old B-24 Liberator as a test target. "We hit the B-24 just forward of the tail with one shot, at an angle typical of an Me-262 attack," he said while pointing to the museum's B-24D.

"The specially-designed 30mm Mine-Type' projectile's fragmentation pattern inside the waist of the bomber densely perforated a narrow band of skin completely around the fuselage at the point of entry, and cut stringers and several control cables to the tail. The aircraft engineers who were with us said the whole tail would have come off if it had been in flight...from just one hit!" he said smiling.

Bilek wrote the Army Air Force's official engineering report on this highly effective cannon and its ammunition. That was how engineers made vital contributions to air technical intelligence.

As a young Army Air Force officer first called upon to examine captured enemy equipment, this expertise in the field of foreign aircraft guns helped him return to scientific and technical intelligence as a civilian in September, 1946.

While assigned to Air Materiel Command's T-2 Intelligence, he worked on special projects in the office of the Technical Assistant to the Chief of the Analysis Division. Not only did Bilek work interesting Foreign Materiel Exploitation projects, he also got to work with some brilliant German scientists who were brought to this country by project Paperclip.

He recalled that their knowledge was astounding, as was their ability to remember infinite details and complex calculations. Bilek collaborated with one German scientist to write a report on V-2 rocket production in the Harz Mountains that is still today a reference. The German just happened to be the former production manager of the factory. In 1947, he became the chief of Air Technical Intelligence Center's Armament Branch. Then, as now, technical intelligence was comprised mainly of engineers and scientists, not intelligence personnel.

Four years later, the Air Force set up a separate technical intelligence unit at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. ATIC reported directly to the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence. Its focus was Soviet technology. In the early days of the Cold War, relatively few examples of Soviet equipment could be obtained because of the secretive nature of Stalin's regime.

During the Korean War, Bilek was recalled to active duty, yet still remained in his job. His branch finally got their shot at exploiting some Russian aircraft cannons. Examples of NS-23 and N-37 MiG-15 cannons became available to ATIC in 1952, after bold United Nations efforts to recover parts from two crashed North Korean MiGs still in enemy territory. After the Naval Gun Factory was generous enough to straighten the 37mm gun barrel bent in the demise of one of the MiGs, the joint ATIC/Navy team thoroughly tested the weapons to learn their strong points as well as their weaknesses. "First off, we were impressed with their reliability and their toughness." He recalled the time he actually froze the N-37 37mm in a solid coating of ice. The test took place in a special facility that was kept at 50 degrees below zero.

"When we fired that thing, it went off just like normal," he laughed. "They have to do that in Siberia." His assessments of these and many other weapons went into exploitation reports that served the needs of both U.S. military operations and acquisition worlds.

ATIC engineers came to respect the Soviet equipment and provided numerous intelligence reports and assessments to the operational commands, research and development community and the nation's leaders. The creation of quality intelligence products was just as important as exploiting the systems. Findings and recommendations had to be clearly communicated to the customers.

In 1958, Bilek had an opportunity to serve as ATIC's Deputy Chief of Production Control. He stayed in the area of production control even after the unit became the Air Force Systems Command's Foreign Technology Division in 1961.

He worked closely with the newly-formed Defense Intelligence Agency to put together their scientific and technical intelligence production summary.

The Vietnam War brought many challenges to FTD. Vic took on a unique challenge in 1968 when he was named the commander's Assistant for Limited War.

In this position and as appointed Chairman of the Joint Services Battle Damage Assessment and Reporting Program in Vietnam, he had the opportunity to travel to South Vietnam and Thailand, briefing air crews on the threats they faced.

"One of the most satisfying times of my career was briefing crews on enemy ground fire and AAA. They would really listen." After this experience, he went back to programming and finished his intelligence career as an Assistant to the Chief Scientist where he studied the infrastructure of the scientific and technical intelligence community. Bilek retired in 1973 as one of the senior statesmen of technical intelligence.

The intelligence pioneer said "the real satisfaction of this job came from the R&D guys saying thank you' for the contribution, or the air crews thanking you for helping them live another day. It was those times that made the technical intelligence especially worthwhile." He continued to serve his country by joining the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary and ultimately becoming a division captain.

At the age of 78, he still teaches boating safety in the Kettering, Ohio Adult School Program and is involved as a counselor in the Service Corps of Retired Executives of the Small Business Administration. He is a service officer in the National Association of Retired Federal

Employees.

Short Cut To Article: http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/aia/cyberspokesman/97may/veteran.htm

528th Ordnance Detachment Technical Intelligence Control

The first mention of this unit was in 1950 when it was activated and sent to Korea as one of several OTID units. These units were returned to continental USA in 1956. The 283rd went to Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. The 507th went to the Detroit Tank Arsenal and the 528th went to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.

As mentioned above, the recovery of enemy weapons was an important factor and in addition to the 528th Ordnance Technical Intelligence Detachment, there was a reserve unit, the 920th OTID called up for service.

See http://korea50.army.mil/history/factsheets/army_reserve.shtml

920th Ordnance Technical Intelligence Detachment

Meritorious Unit Commendation

920th Ordnance Technical Intelligence Detachment was commanded by Lt. Tom Hesselbarth of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Quartermaster Korean War Battle Credit 1950-1953

Based on Department of the Army General Order #80, 22 November 1954, Battle Credits and Assault Landings for Korea. And DA Pam 672-1 W/Change 4, Unit Citation and Campaign Participation Credit Register, 4 June 1962. Note that these were for the most part units physically located within the territorial limits of Korea. Department of the Army General Order #39, 9 June 1955, Korean Service Medal and United Nations Service Medal, lists unit designated by the Commander in Chief, Far East, as having directly supported the military effort in Korea although they may not have been physically located in Korea.

Key is at bottom of table. Unit Awards reflect abbreviation for type of award, inclusive dates of award and Department of the Army General Order (DAGO) number for award. Every effort has been made to provide correct information, but errors are possible.

527th Quartermaster Technical Intelligence Detachment

None

45 (29-30 Apr 52) to 48

533rd Engineer Technical Intelligence Team

Curtis Allen wrote on 2002-10-01 20:16:15.0

I was a member of the 533rd (the army's smallest unit) and remember Freshwater, the photographer, as well as officers Dombrowski, Frank and Simpson plus Sgts Detweiler, Reffner and Lynn. Also, Tracy Wilt.

The 533was one if not the smallest units in the us army, it consisted of five men, two officers and three enlisted men. The two officers were graduate engineers a Capt. and a lt. the enlisted men were various ranks, but their specialties were interpreter, graphic artist, photographer and mechanic. Since it was so small it was always attached to a larger unit for food and rations. The mission of the unit was with captured engineer equipment to disseminate photograph and intelligence report to see if the captured piece was any better then ours, in some cases the material was shipped back to the states for further research.

From Tom Hines:

I went into the service at Aberdeen Proving Ground 15 June 1955--about 3 months in officers basic and four of us were interviewed and selected for technical intelligence school. When the school finished I was sent to the Unit Training Center at APG to await the officers and NCOs that would be the basis of the 528th. The TO&E called for 4 officers 7 EMS. The CO was to be a Capt. with 3 Lts, 3 master Sgts. 1 SFC,2 Corporals, and one PFC. I was assigned CO of Headquarters Co Unit Training center until Major Thomkins collected the rest of the staff who were also assigned to Headquarters Co. as they came in. The CO of the 528th was Capt Harder but he had not returned from Europe so I had the job in the meantime. The subsequent officers came from later classes of the tech intelligence school. When about five people were available the 528th was assigned a small building just off Chesapeake Road and we drew 2 jeeps with trailers, a 3/4 ton truck with trailer, our weapons, typewriters etc. and we were set up in business in our own little building. Boy were we something. There were 5 tech intelligence detachments around the world at that time 2 in Europe, 1 in Japan, 1 in Korea, and one in Formosa. These five man units were supposed to report to the control detachment but as a practical matter the stuff they were picking up. stealing, reporting, went direct to what we considered our Battalion level, Ordnance Technical Intelligence Service which was a civilian unit quartered in a back room of the Ordnance museum. OTIS was managed up by a G-12 as I remember but with a Captain in command and a Lt. Capt Harder finally showed up in about March '56 took command of the 528th and very shortly thereafter was assigned to head up

OTIS so I got the command back and held that job until Lt Winfield G Daniels came on the scene----wow what a character. Dan was a WWII battlefield commission and retread when Korea heated up.

The story Dan told was that he and Lt Baker had borrowed 12 gauge shotguns from the MPs and were hunting Pheasants when their jeep drove onto a Chinese tank with its gun in the trailing position. The tanker cranked his turret around while Dan and Baker were turning their jeep around and got off an armor piercing round that skipped under the jeep knocking the jeep several feet off the road. Daniels was in a ditch and Baker was hanging from a tree limb and strangulating on his field jacket. Daniels unzipped Bakers jacket and he dropped to the ground. This whole incident is supposed to have take place 3 miles behind the Chinese lines. A GI patrol found them that night. Daniels had a neck injury and was returned to duty. Baker was pretty badly hurt and was sent to Tokyo.

When Daniels took command of the 528th he was most interested in smoking cigarettes, drinking coffee, and watching the clock so he could go the gym and play handball. After a few weeks he had all us shavetails playing handball. However, 2nd army had issued a order that the officers were to stay in shape for the PT test so we could take a half hour of our day for PT training and if our CO (Daniels) wanted to stretch the lunch period to 2 hours that was OK with us.

It was at this time that Baker returned to APG from Japan and I think he was still recovering from the incident. We 2nd Lts. met him at the gym and he introduced us to Japanese Judo. I don't recall what his assignment was at that time but I think he got transferred as a I can't remember how he happened to leave our scene.

In 1963 I was working in Pittsburgh when I got a phone call from Daniels; I met him for lunch and we ordered a drink. To my surprise Daniels had lost the use of his right hand due to a bone growth on his neck as a result of the jeep incident. He had been to Walter Reed and wound up with a medical discharge. I never saw or heard of him again.

The 528th did a bit of infantry training in that period. All the detachments that were assembled out of the Unit Training Center were required to pass the 2nd Army combat field test with all our gear. I still take a measure of pride in 97.5 score that we achieved on that test. I was told that it was far and away the highest score on APG in '56 and so far in '57. Tom Hines

The Unit Training Center commanded by Major Thomkins was simply a barracks facility for all the troops who were attending specialty training at the Ordnance School. That's really all headquarter company was. We had formation every morning at about 7:00 and the soldiers would go to their respective specialty classes. Their were EOD detachment personnel, radar detachment people, electronic fire control detachment people with their special vans but I don't believe their were any medical detachments at the UTC . This not to be confused with the several companies the GIs fresh out of basic that were assigned to the Ordnance School for auto mechanics, tank mechanics, artillery maintenance etc. The GIs in the UTC had been had picked from that bunch. That's just how the Ordnance Tech Intel officers were picked too but I'll be damned if I know how I was picked--and even had the right of refusal. I had a masters degree in mechanical engineering and had attended a Junior ROTC high school but when the 528th was staffed I was about the poorest educated guy in the unit. One of the officers was a Chemical engineer and one was a lawyer. The corporal (Langlios) was a licensed court reporter and the PFC was the Co clerk, a 275 pound linebacker from Panama (Rupert Danzine) that typed at 130/minute.

Needless to say OTIS had us (Danzine) doing a lot of typing for them and the pickle factory. Our main study at that time was a comparative analysis of solid fuel verses liquid fuel ICBMs. The political pressure was terrible with the puzzle palace insisting that liquid fuel was not what they wanted to see in these reports. Daniels and I had to make a special trip to the pentagon to see some colonel about it. When we found his office Daniels realized that he knew the guy from the Italian campaign. I can't recall all that happened in that office but just the thought of it has me grinning to this day.

An interesting web site that is mostly about Soviet air technical Intelligence in Korea can be found at this link:

Shortcut to: http://www.nationalalliance.org/korea/korea02.htm

National Air Intelligence Center

Headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, the National Air Intelligence Center, a component of the Air Intelligence Agency, is the Air Force's single, integrated intelligence production center and is the primary Department of Defense producer of foreign aerospace intelligence.

The NAIC assesses current and projected foreign forces, threat and weapon system capabilities and employment, develops targeting and mission planning intelligence materials and evaluates evolving technologies of potential adversaries.

NAIC products and services play a key role in assuring that American forces avoid technological surprise and can counter the foreign air and space threat. NAIC and constituent units provide center customers a broad range of integrated, tailored assessments and information operations products and services.

These services and products directly support Air Force operational units, national decision makers, as well as the research and development sustaining the acquisition of United States air and space weapons systems. The combat effectiveness and survivability of advanced weapons and support systems, both in the field and in development, depends on the accuracy of NAIC intelligence. The National Air Intelligence Center develops its products by analyzing all data available to the U. S. intelligence community on foreign air and space forces and weapon systems to determine performance characteristics, capabilities, vulnerabilities and employment.

NAIC assessments are also an important factor in shaping our national security and defense policies. As the Department of Defense experts on foreign aerospace system capabilities, center members have historically been involved in supporting U. S. weapons treaty negotiations and verification.

Center responsibilites cover the full range of air and space systems and technologies including: aircraft missiles space systems radars electronic and electro- optic countermeasures integrated air defense systems command, control and communication systems Sophisticated data processing, engineering and modeling techniques enable NAIC analysts, technicians, scientists and engineers to fulfill the center's mission.

Another core NAIC mission area is the processing and exploitation of Measurement and Signature Intelligence. NAIC serves as the National and Department of Defense executive agent for processing, exploitation, integration, reporting and dissemination of MASINT data collected from radar, electro- optical and infra- red technical sensors.

NAIC prepares spectral, spatial and temporal signatures of threat tar-gets in support of air and space forces, develops analytical tools for technical analysis and provides technology transfer of these techniques for fusion of MASINT data in the operational environment.

NAIC is the nation's only exploitation organization for imagery collected under the Open Skies Treaty. It serves as the exploitation agency for Signals Intelligence collected for the RC- 135 Rivet Joint and Combat Sent missions and is the Department of Defense organization for the development of machine translation tools. HQ NAIC traces its roots back to the Foreign Data Section of the Airplane Engineering Department, formed in 1917, at Mc Cook Field in Dayton, Ohio. The section studied foreign aircraft, translated foreign language aerospace publications and maintained a technical library.

During World War II, the Army designated the unit the Technical Data Laboratory and depended upon it for information on enemy aircraft technology. By the end of 1945, nearly 750 people were at work at the unit, then known as "T- 2 Intelligence," evaluating captured foreign aircraft and translating, indexing and microfilming technical documents.

In 1951, the S & TI mission fell upon the Air Technical Intelligence Center, its primary focus Soviet technology. In July 1961, the Air Force deactivated ATIC, yet activated another unit to take over its manpower, mission and facilities.

The Air Force Systems Command's Foreign Technology Division was the organizational beginning of today's National Air Intelligence Center. Since the beginning of its organizational lineage in 1961, the units mission and resources have expanded to meet the challenges of worldwide technological developments and the accompanying national need for aerospace intelligence. In recent years, the emphasis has increasingly shifted toward evaluation of worldwide aerospace systems and the production of "tailored," customer- specific products.

NAIC was formed Oct. 1, 1993, with the integration of the Foreign Aerospace Science and Technology Center and the 480th Intelligence Group.

Headquarters NAIC employs more than 1,600 people. Subordinate units at Langley Air Force Base, Va., and Offutt Air Force Base, Neb., form the 480th IG, and provide support to NAIC operational customers.

The five divisions of the Directorate of Intelligence Analysis, located at the Pentagon and Washington, D. C., area, provide tailored, substantive military intelligence to the Air Force Chief of Staff, the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Staff and other Department of Defense and national customers.

Besides their commitment to the mission, the 2,059 people that work for NAIC are actively involved in many community projects helping people. Tutoring children at a local school, coaching youth sports teams, working with Habitat for Humanity in building houses for the less- fortunate, working with kids that have mental and physical challenges, adopting a highway, organizing local food and blood drives and sponsoring the Wright- Patterson Air Force Base Annual Sports Day.

NAIC people are leading the way, making the community better. As our nation enters the information age of the 21st century, the need for tailored air and space intelligence and information operations products and services will continually increase.

As information operators on the AIA team, NAIC will continue to provide the nation's military forces the tailored intelligence products essential to precision employment and in-formation- based warfare, expanding the Air Force's capability to conduct information operations and achieve information superiority.

480TH INTELLIGENCE GROUP

Supporting the operational forces by providing timely intelligence information

With headquarters located at Langley Air Force Base, Va., the 480th Intelligence Group is a component of NAIC. Langley is a long standing establishment on the lower peninsula of Virginia. It is a major contributor to the entire community known as the Tidewater area, which is located within minutes of several major cities including Norfolk, Hampton, Newport News and Colonial Williamsburg. The capital, Richmond, is only an hour away.

The 480th, formerly an Air Combat Command organization, provides conventional mission planning support and target materials, multi- source intelligence analysis and operational intelligence required to train, prepare and support in- garrison and deployed combat air forces.

MISSION

The 480th's specific mission is to process and apply intelligence and other information using state- of- the-art capabilities to provide timely, relevant and accurate products and services for the operational air forces.

VISION

The unit's vision is "Center of Excellence," providing imagery- focused multi-disciplined intelligence for global information superiority, committed to vigilance.

Through sophisticated communications and computer systems, the 480th provides the deployed war fighter direct access to the comprehensive assets of the NAIC.

The unit is organized into three subordinate squadrons:

20th Intelligence Squadron Located at Offutt Air Force Base, Neb., was assigned in 1992.

27th Intelligence Squadron Located at Langley Air Force Base, Va., was assigned in 1990.

36th Intelligence Squadron Located at Langley Air Force Base, Va., was assigned in 1990.

Also, the 123rd Intelligence Squadron, an Arkansas Air National Guard Unit, located at Little Rock Air Force Base, is gained during wartime.

Subordinated squadrons provide both scheduled and ad hoc intelligence tailored to the unique, immediate needs of air warfighters. They employ the concepts and processes of virtual production, application utilizing a myriad of state- of- the- art information processing and production systems and on- line databases. The unit has committed itself to being ever vigilant of the constant advances in information processing, storage and dissemination technologies. It is also recognized throughout the intelligence and operational community as a leader in the testing, evaluation and application of new technologies to meet the needs of current and emerging weapons systems and their employed munitions. The unit has been instrumental in recent innovative programs and projects that included the development of digital target materials, production of digital materials for Air Force Mission Support Systems, virtual production and providing air combat units with near- real- time imagery information for mission planning and execution.

Since its origination in 1969, the 480th has been awarded five Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards.

20TH INTELLIGENCE SQUADRON EMBLEM

The patch was approved in 1958. The cloud and sky are symbolic of the squadron's historic flying mission. "Yosemite Sam" represents squadron personnel carrying on the activities of the unit, map reading, target location and visual reconnaissance. Sam's gun is symbolic of target- making weapons and devices, and the camera system indicates photographic reconnaissance. The lightning bolt represents direct destruction from the air, artillery adjustment and fighter strikes. The 20th IS provides mission planning support primarily to bomber units in support of U. S. Strategic Command. It maintains liaison between NAIC and U. S. Strategic Command on nuclear targeting, weaponeering and battle damage assessment issues.

MISSION

The mission of the 20th is to provide prompt, precise intelligence enabling warfighters to safely engage and achieve global objectives. The 20th processes and analyzes raw electronic intelligence data, and prepares both operational and tech-nical ELINT reports and studies.

The 20th is organized into three flights:

Target Materials Combat Applications Operations

The Target Material Flight produces precise coordinated measurements and mission- support materials for Air Force bomber, fighter and other airborne platforms engaged in exercise, training or actual combat operations.

It provides graphics, coordinated measurements and aim point selection assistance supporting nuclear, conventional and humanitarian relief operations. It also performs distri-bution of maps and charts supporting short- notice mission planning and flying requirements Air Force wide.

The Combat Applications Flight activities entail providing direct application support for specified combat customers. This includes an AIA node for operational dissemination of near- real time imagery to Air Force and Department of Defense users worldwide; and is Air Combat Command's point of contact for pre-mission survivability and threat as-sessments, target analysis, wea-poneering support and post- mission combat assessments for the Conventional Air Launched Cruise Missile program. Additionally, it performs modeling and simulation survivability analysis studies for requesting cus-tomers and is the executive manager for the Integrated Air Defense systems efforts.

The Operations Flight provides the day- to- day operating support to the other flights within the 20th. These activities are dispersed through branches who perform the activities of planning, requirements manage-ment, systems maintenance, logistics support and resource management.

The 20th IS began its origins as the 20th Photographic Mapping Squadron in 1942. In these early years, the unit worked under many different names and was stationed all over the world from Sydney, Australia, to Newark, N. J., to Yokota, Japan. They participated in the Pacific air offensive and the occupation of Japan until inactivation in 1946.

The 20th was back in service for the Korean War as the 20th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron until 1967. In 1992, it was reactivated and designated the 20th Air Intelligence Squadron under the newly formed Air Combat Command, operating out of Offutt Air Force Base, Neb. A year later, it was re-designated as the 20th Intelligence Squadron under the Air Intelligence Agency. Offutt Air Force Base, Neb. was established in 1896 as Fort Cook, and is currently the oldest "fort" west of the Mississippi River. Fort Cook was named after Gen. George Cook, who was famous for more than 20 years of service during the Indian Wars. In 1924, they added a runway and the base became Offutt Air Field after Lt. Jarvis Offutt, Omaha's first air casualty. It became Offutt Air Force Base, Neb., in 1948 when the Army and Air Force became separate services.

Offices of the 20th IS are located in the Martin Bomber Building, the same building that manufactured B-26 Marauders and B- 29 Super-fortresses.

Both the "Enola Gay" and "Bock's Car," the B- 29s which dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were built here. The Martin Bomber Building, or Building D, is one- third the size of the Pentagon.

27th Intelligence Squadron

The 27th Intelligence Squadron's mission is to expertly serve the 480th IG and other Department of Defense organizations using skilled Professionals and leading edge technologies and to develop, provide and manage systems and production infrastructures and services.

The 27th IS is responsible for sustaining the 480th's daily operations. It operates and maintains automated production support systems, a secondary imagery dissemination sys-tem and photographic and litho-graphic facilities for the group. Their vision is to become an unrivaled source of information warfare support and achieve a virtual based infrastructure to fuse multimedia applications and products through emerging technologies and state- of-the- art facilities in anticipation of customer needs for information dominance and operational supremacy. The 27th provides the communication, photographic, dissemination and facility, security and logistics management necessary for the 480th to deliver high- quality, time- sensitive, imagery based intelligence for dissemination to U. S. and allied war-fighters around the globe.

The 27th Intelligence Squadron is comprised of two flights:

Production Services Systems/ Data Base Management

The Systems and Database Management Flight provides state- of- the-art communications and computing and the Production Services provides a broad range of essential services. The Visual Information Branch provides digital and wet imagery processing, still photography and 35mm slide production, high- speed, large-volume reproduction and graphic design.

The Dissemination Branch distributes and tracks all outgoing products, maintains a chart library with worldwide coverage and the basic target and training graphic reposi-tory.

Also, the Security Branch manages the group's programs and maintains unit and visitor security clearances and facility security devices. The Facility Branch manages the entire facility and grounds including upgrades and construction. The Logistics Branch manages the group's supply and equipment accounts. The unit was active during World War II when it won seven campaign streamers, a Distinguished Unit Cita-tion and the French Croix de Guerre with Palm. The 27th was inactivated in December 1945 then reactivated in September 1990.

EMBLEM

Bat outa hell: red cloaked batman with oxygen mask and headset

Aerial Cameras: model K- 17, 18, 22, 24 in various formats

Map Section: connecting the twin fuselage

White cloud formation: highlight-ing the batman and representing the sky P- 38 Lightning: unique twin-boom airframe, fastest long- range fighter

Lightning Bolts: Representing the aircraft's name, and the crew's flying style

Bare metal: flying without paint shaved an extra 300- 4000 pounds, given it more speed

Blue: as camouflage to hide form gunners as they made high speed runs over de-fended targets

Normandy stripes: often left to keep our gunners from shooting down single or small groups of P- 38s

Nose art: Like most WWII flyers, F- 4 and F- 5 crew often personalized their aircraft. They often painted small swastikas on the nose for each mission over enemy territory.

36th Intelligence Squadron

The 36th IS provides tactical target materials, special targeting and weaponeering analysis, and tailored digital data bases to support U. S. Air Force weapons systems, mission planning and aircrew training.

The squadron also provides focused and tailored intelligence to meet the specific requirements of Air Force units preparing for deployment, while they are deploying, and during the time they are deployed.

The 36th is organized into four flights:

Digital Materials Intelligence Applications Targeting/ Recognition Materials Requirements Management

The Digital Materials Flight provides accurate digital maps, charts, elevation data, detailed geocoded imagery and other digital products supporting automated mission planning needs and unique requirements for advanced weapon systems.

It serves as the Air Force's sole producer of multi- spectral imagery. The Intelligence Applications Flight supports combat air forces, training units, the NAIC and AIA staffs by producing materials, targeting analysis and specialized target studies.

The Targeting/ Recognition Materials Flight produces ad hoc and scheduled general military intelligence to support exercise, training and combat operations of the Air Force and other Department of Defense aircrew members the same type of target materials they will be using in operational conditions as well as producing prototype target materials for future and developmental weapon systems.

The Requirements Management Flight assigns and tracks all ad hoc and scheduled production requirements. They also submit, track and monitor associated all- source intelligence collections.

The 36th was originally called the 28th Observation Squadron July 1942 and activated at Goodman Field, Ky.

The 28th held many different designations including the 28th Reconnaissance Squadron, April 2, 1943; the 28th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron in August; the 36th Photographic Mapping Squadron in October; and the 36th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, March 1944.

In those early years, the unit served in the United States, New Guinea, Philippines, Okinawa and Chofu, Japan.

The 36th PRS was inactivated in February 1946. In September 1990, the unit was re-designated as the 36th Tactical Intelligence Squadron at Langley Air Force Base, Va., and assigned to the 480th. In November 1991, the 36th TIS was re-designated as the 36th Air Intelligence Squadron and in October 1993, it was re-designated as the 36th Intelligence Squadron.

From : http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/aia/cyberspokesman/97aug/naic.htm

The U.S. Army, Ground Forces

Redstone Arsenal Complex Chronology:

The Redstone Arsenal Era, 1950-55

Introduction

With the cessation of hostilities in 1945 production at both Redstone and Huntsville Arsenals ceased. The Ordnance plant was put on standby status in February 1947, while the Chemical Corps installation was declared excess to the Army's needs in September of that same year. Huntsville Arsenal was actually advertised for sale by 1 July 1949, but the sale never took place because the Army found that it needed this land for the new rocket and missile mission developing at nearby Redstone Arsenal.

October 1948, the Chief of Ordnance had designated Redstone Arsenal as the center of research and development activities in the field of rockets and related items. The arsenal was officially reactivated as the site of the Ordnance Rocket Center on 1 June 1949. By the end of that month, Huntsville Arsenal ceased to exist as a separate facility. Later, on 28 October 1949, the Secretary of the Army approved the transfer of the Ordnance Research and Development Division Sub-Office (Rocket) at Fort Bliss, Texas, to Redstone Arsenal. Among those transferred were Dr. Wernher von Braun and his team of German scientists and engineers. With the arrival of the Fort Bliss group beginning on 15 April 1950, Redstone Arsenal officially entered the missile era.

The various chronological entries have been extracted from arsenal records from the 1950-55 period, newspapers of that time, personal recollections, and various other sources found in the Historical Office's archives. Many of the photographs included in this volume correspond to a particular event described in an entry. Others are representative of the various activities that occurred.

The period dating from January 1950 to August 1962 was time of outstanding success for the U.S. Army's rocket and missile programs. It was also the period during which the Army made its most notable contributions to the nation's space effort. The pursuit of excellence that characterized Redstone Arsenal during World War II continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s. It remains the hallmark of today's Redstone Arsenal.

1 July 52 The German scientists and technicians at Redstone Arsenal who entered the United States through Project Paperclip were converted from DA Special Employees to Civil Service. With the exception of three employees, all of the Germans working at the arsenal were able to meet the eligibility requirements for conversion. Those ineligible at that time continued working under personal services contracts. This action served to reduce problems connected with the administration of personal services contracts and security clearances.

1 November 52 Effective this date, COL Holger N. Toftoy, OML Director, was promoted to brigadier general. He was the first officer to advance to the rank of general while assigned to Redstone Arsenal. A ceremonial parade in General Toftoy's honor was held on 5 June 53. Col. Toftoy had been the SHAEF Ordnance Technical Intelligence Officer during WW II. He was responsible for the analysis of fielded German weapons. His counterpart was Col Quinn, who was responsible for analysis of potential enemy weapons. In the 1990s, when the foreign Material Complex was dedicated, one of the buildings was named Toftoy Hall.

11 November 54 Thirty-nine of Redstone's German-born scientists, along with the wives of two of the Operation Paperclip group, were sworn in as U.S. citizens. This event had a favorable impact on the arsenal's overall public relations image because it eliminated the stigma of "aliens" working on highly classified missions for U.S. defense.

14 April 55 In an unprecedented ceremony held at Huntsville High School, 103 German-born scientists, technicians, and members of their families became American citizens. Among those taking the oath of citizenship was Dr. Wernher von Braun.

9 February 56 The 283d Ordnance Detachment (Technical Intelligence-Control) was assigned to Redstone Arsenal. It was attached to OML for operational control. Commanded by then Captain Rudi Nottrodt, this was the origin of what would become the Missile Intelligence Agency. Rudi told me that the whole missile intelligence effort was carried in his briefcase.

Redstone Arsenal - Huntsville, Alabama

DIA employs a variety of engineering analysts, support professionals, and support assistants at the Missile & Space Intelligence Center at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. Huntsville, with over 190,000 residents, is the fourth largest city in Alabama. Founded in 1805, Huntsville today is a diversified community supporting a wide range of high technology, industrial, and international trade activities.

The Huntsville area offers many points of interest well worth a visit. One of the busiest is NASA's Space and Rocket Center, offering displays and working models chronicling the history of missile and space technology. A central downtown attraction is the Von Braun Civic Center, which consists of the Arena, Concert Hall, Art Museum, and office space for most of the art and culture organizations of Huntsville.

In 1991, DIA absorbed two intelligence units that had originally been under the control of the army. The Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (AFMIQ was established in 1982, replacing the Army Medical Intelligence and Information Agency (AMIIA), which had provided medical intelligence to the entire defense community. Such intelligence is vital for planning combat operations where the environment and prevalence of diseases differ markedly from those in the United States.

One aspect of AFMIC activities consists of producing general medical intelligence — on health and sanitation, epidemiology, environmental factors, and military and civilian medical care capabilities. A second aspect is the production of medical, scientific, and technical intelligence concerning all basic and applied biomedical phenomena of military importance, including biological, chemical, psychological, and biophysical factors.

Also placed under DIA control in 1991 was the then-Army Missile and Space Intelligence Center (MSIC). MSIC traces its origins back to the Special Security Office of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, established in June 1956. After a variety of name changes and increases in status, it became the Missile Intelligence Agency in 1970, and in 1985, the Army Missile and Space Intelligence Center. The center's mission was to produce intelligence on foreign missile and space systems which could affect the army's mission. Thus, it produced intelligence on short-range ballistic missiles, antitank guided missiles, tactical air defense, strategic ballistic missile defense, and strategic air defenses.

The Defense Intelligence Agency's Missile and Space Intelligence Center (MSIC) had a ground breaking ceremony for its new center at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Ala. on Jan. 23, 1998. This was DIA's first new construction since 1984. Sen. Richard C. Shelby, Lt. Gen. Patrick M. Hughes, director of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and other dignitaries will participate in the groundbreaking ceremony. The center, completed in December 1999, was a state-of-the-art scientific and technical intelligence analysis complex. It will allow MSIC's engineering and analytical specialists to better support DIA's mission of providing vital intelligence to war fighters, policymakers, and decision makers well into the next century.

The MSIC manages and produces all-source scientific and technical intelligence on foreign missiles, missile defense systems, directed energy weapons, selected space programs and systems, and relevant command, control, communications and computer systems. It also provides analyses of those materials to the Department of Defense and other U.S. Government organizations such as the FBI.

The Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant

By Ann M. Bos, TACOM Command Historian,

Warren, Michigan

From the start of World War II through the Gulf War, the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant has played a vital role in this country's defense. In times of war and peace, prosperity and uncertainty, this facility has rallied to meet the nation's needs. Sixty years ago, the first tank rolled off the assembly line at the plant. Over 59,460 tanks were built in the facility that became synonymous with the Arsenal of Democracy.

The Detroit Arsenal and the tank plant within its boundaries were born on August 15, 1940 when the U.S. Army signed a contract with Chrysler Corporation to build a $20 million plant. The contract called for construction of 1,000 tanks each costing $33,500. Seemingly overnight the tank plant sprang up on 113 acres of farm land located north of downtown Detroit, Michigan, in what is now called the City of Warren. Plant construction began on September 11, 1940. Its architect, Albert Kahn, proudly noted that the plant was "the largest of its type in the world". This mammoth building of more than 1.1 million square feet is a one-story structure measuring 1,832 feet long and 602 feet wide. It's impressive even by today's standards. The tank arsenal was the first plant ever built for mass production of American tanks.

The government accepted the first M3 on April 24, 1941, while the plant was still under construction. The delivery was an historic occasion, broadcast over a nationwide radio hook-up. It was truly a red-letter day for Detroit and its assembly line method of production. Crowds cheered as this metal child of industry and government fired its guns, smashed telephone poles, and destroyed a mockup house. The plant began delivering production M3 tanks in July 1941, receiving the nation's first Minuteman Award for its efforts.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt made the tank plant his first stop on a secret tour of defense facilities in 1942, the same year that the plant was awarded the first Army- Navy 'E' Award for excellence. In total, the U.S. produced 89,568 tanks during World War 11, with the Detroit Tank Plant producing nearly one-fourth of these vehicles - precisely 22,234 tanks - while sixteen other plants supplied the remaining tanks.

With the onset of the Korean War, Chrysler went right to work modifying the plant to make a new main battle tank- the M47 Patton -building 3,443 M47 tanks from 1952-54.

New tank production finished in 1955, but Chrysler continued to use the facility to machine tank component parts for their Newark, Delaware, plant. Full tank production resumed at the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant when the first Detroit-built M60 tank was delivered in November 1960. Over the next twenty-seven years more than 14,416 tanks rolled off the plant's assembly lines.

In 1979 Chrysler received the M1 Abrams tank production contract with the Army designating the Lima Army Tank Plant as the production facility. The Detroit Arsenal plant did not become idle and Lima received the first Detroit Arsenal-built M1 components in the early 1979. To meet demands, the Detroit Arsenal plant transformed into a second M1 tank production facility, delivering production M1s starting in October 1981. General Dynamics Land System bought Chrysler Defense in 1982, continuing to produce M60s and M1s side-by-side until M60 production halted in 1987. Detroit Arsenal produced M1-series vehicles until 1991, when lowered demand for the Abrams tanks forced the Army to close one of the tank plants.

The Congressional Base Realignment and Closure Act of 1995 marked the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant for closure. The City of Warren was designated to receive the property for reuse and

development. In 1996 all Army tank manufacturing ceased at the facility. By 1998, the Army began transferring the property to Warren, with the final portion transferred on December 10, 2001.

Transfer of this historic property, however, did not end the Army's relationship with the local community or the state of Michigan. The Army will remain a vital presence within the area with the continuance of the U.S. Army Tank-Automotive and Armaments Command on the remaining 170 acres of Detroit Arsenal. TACOM today is the Army's primary provider for ground mobility, lethality, survivability, and sustainment, and is the Army's leading command for research, development, acquisition, equipment recapitalization and logistics for ground equipment.

Today TACOM also extends beyond the City of Warren to include facilities at Rock Island, Illinois; Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey; Red River Army Depot, Texarkana, Texas; and Anniston Army Depot, Anniston, Alabama.

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TACOM

The U.S. Army Tank-automotive & Armaments Command

The U.S. Army Tank-automotive and Armaments Command, or TACOM is dedicated to providing soldiers with overwhelming lethality, mobility, and survivability for battlefield dominance. TACOM generates, provides and sustains mobility, lethality and survivability for soldiers, other U.S. Armed Services, and our allies - all to ensure Army readiness, today, tomorrow and beyond. TACOM's military and civilian associates find and implement technology and logistics solutions for the soldier. From tank-automotive and armaments weapon systems research and development, through procurement and fielding, to sustainment and retirement, TACOM's associates provide "cradle-to-grave" support to America's Armed Forces.

TACOM is headquartered in Warren, Michigan, but has satellite sites in New Jersey, Illinois, Alabama and Texas. Several hundred staff serve where soldiers serve -at stateside Army installations and around the world - to provide the best and fastest support possible. In all, nearly 12,000 active duty and Department of the Army civilians work for TACOM. Approximately 3,500 associates work at the Warren headquarters.

TACOM's headquarters in Warren, Michigan traces its roots to World War II, when the Detroit Tank Arsenal built over 25,000 tanks for the allied nations. Two other TACOM locations (Anniston and Red River Army depots) also trace their origins to World War II; and two of TACOM's organizations, ARDEC at Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey, and Selfridge Garrison, Michigan, are even older. In 1907, the Army established its first powder factory at Picatinny Arsenal. In 1908, Army lieutenant Thomas Selfridge became the world's first aircraft fatality. His pilot, Orville Wright, barely survived the crash. Around that same time, a Michigan visionary created an airfield that would become Selfridge Air National Guard Base.

In 1995, two Army organizations, Armament and Chemical Acquisition and Logistics Activity (ACALA) in Illinois and Armament Research, Development, and Engineering Center (ARDEC) in New Jersey, joined the TACOM Family. The command subsequently changed its name to the Tank-automotive and Armaments Command, keeping the well-known TACOM acronym. In 1998, Red River Army Depot in Texas and Anniston Army Depot in Alabama were added, nearly doubling the size of the TACOM community and expanding the command's mission and importance to the soldier in the field.

In 1940, the U.S. government built a tank arsenal to support the allied war effort in WWII. Tank-automotive management moved to Detroit shortly thereafter. Over the years, both Chrysler and General Dynamics have operated the plant and together produced over 44,000 vehicles. In 1967, the Arsenal was renamed U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Command (TACOM) and gained control over nearly all of the Army’s tank-automotive systems. The plant itself closed in the 1990s but the management of TACOM thrives with an ever-expanding mission.

In 1804, the U.S. government acquired title to Rock Island in Illinois. The Army then used the island until 1836 as a fort for the Indian Wars. In the period after World War I, Rock Island became instrumental in the development and repair of tanks. In 1993 these functions were realigned, with a chemical defense mission added and Rock Island became the Armament and Chemical Acquisition Activity. In 1994, this activity became part of the TACOM family and today is known as TACOM-Rock Island.

In 1880, the War Department established the Picatinny Powder Depot in Rockaway Township, New Jersey. It was built on land that had been the site of an iron forge that provided munitions for Washington's troops during the Revolutionary War. In 1907, the installation became Picatinny Arsenal, home of the Army's first smokeless powder factory. After World War I, the arsenal added research and development of large caliber munitions to its mission. By 1977, manufacturing was replaced by the research and development of weapons and small caliber munitions. It was designated the United States Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) in 1986 and joined TACOM in 1994.

The War Department began planning construction of an Army Ordnance Depot in northeast Alabama during March 1940. Ammunition storage igloos, standard magazines, warehouse, and administrative buildings sprang up nearly overnight. But it was not until 1952 that the depot began overhauling and repairing combat vehicles, anti-aircraft and mobile artillery. This mission has grown and changed as the Army upgraded existing weapon systems and developed new ones. The depot was renamed the Anniston Army Depot in 1962 and became part of the TACOM family on October 1, 1998.

The Red River Army Depot was activated in 1941 as an ammunition storage site. By 1943 the depot's mission had expanded to include general supply storage, tank repair and an ordnance-training center. The center trained thousands of ordnance soldiers before finally closing in 1955. Part of the TACOM family since 1998, today Red River provides depot maintenance for the Bradley Fighting Vehicle, Multiple Launch Rocket System, and Combat Tactical Wheeled Vehicles. Its electronics repair facility supports the Bradley, Multiple Launch Rocket System, and a variety of missile support and aircraft armament subsystems. The depot is also the worldwide center for Patriot and Hawk missile re-certification.

Vietnam Era

In November 1965 action was initiated to have the 18th Chemical Detachment, 571st Engineer Detachment, 521st Medical Detachment, 528th Ordnance Detachment, 590th Quartermaster Detachment, 18th Signal Detachment, and 30th Transportation Detachment assigned to the 519th Military Intelligence Battalion to support the corresponding sections of the Technical Intelligence Branch. Because these were the only technical intelligence units in Military Assistance Command, centralized control was exercised in order to provide the best possible support for the entire command.

As mentioned the 528th Ordnance Detachment (Technical Intelligence) was one of several cellular teams that made up the Combined Material Exploitation Center (CMEC). CMEC was based on D Company of the 519th Military Intelligence Battalion. The 528th OTID arrived in Vietnam on21 September 1965. In 1967 to sometime in 1968, the unit was commanded by Captain James Leatherwood. It made up the CMEC, Weapons and Munitions Section. On 25 September 1969, the 528th and other TID units were in-activated in Vietnam. 1972, the 528th and the other elements of CMEC were returned to the USA and the small detachments were decommissioned and Co. D/519 went to Fort Bragg. In 1975, D Company moved to Aberdeen Proving Ground.

Technical Intelligence and tank design

There are three factors to be considered in designing a tank, firepower, mobility and armor protection. Increase in one decreases one of the others. Tank design is also a combination of current technology and perceived threat.

The US Army Ballistics Research Laboratory is at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, Maryland. As the name implies, the mission of BRL was ballistics computations, which were used in preparing firing tables and other aids for weapons employment. BRL, as it was called, sponsored the development of the ENIAC, regarded as the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. BRL engineers developed and built several other computers until directed to discontinue home-made computers. The last of the line was the "BRLESC", the Ballistics Research Laboratory Electronic Scientific Computer. The BRLESC and its predecessor, the ORDVAC, used their own unique notation for hexadecimal numbers. The digits eleven to fifteen were represented by the letters K S N J F L instead of the sequence A B C D E F universally used today. Why? "King Size Numbers, Just For Laughs." A visitor to BRL in the late 1950's might see other artifacts of computer development such as mechanical calculators for octal numbers and a brass plaque on the wall commemorating the first installation of the ENIAC.

In June 1972 the BRL produced a report, titled “Report No. 1593 - EVOLUTION AND FORECAST OF THE SOVIET MAIN BATTLE TANK”. This was derived from the USAAMC, FSTC report Subject: The Soviet Technological Threat to U.S. Ground Forces (1960-1980) which was dated April 1969. This report was based on many sources of information to include the reports on material captured in Vietnam and evacuated by CMEC to the USA. It in worth noting that this was done prior to the NVA 1972 Easter Offensive during which SAGGER missiles first appeared in combat as well as Chinese and Soviet T 54/55 tanks.

Sagger Missle

Sagger Missle Control System

At the same time, the DDR&E was working on Project Hindsight.

We highlight some of the objectives and findings of the first Hindsight report of 1969. We also present a brief chronology of U.S. tank development. Included in the chronology is a look at the Abrams’ predecessor, the M60 Patton tank, and at the requirements that were set for the design and development of the Abrams. Project Hindsight The study undertaken here is modeled in part on a 1969 report, Project Hindsight.

In 1965, the DDR&E, Dr. Harold Brown, launched a project to take a retrospective look at DOD investment in research and development (R&D), evaluate the results, and take stock of lessons learned. Brown’s overarching objectives for the study were to identify management factors that were associated with the utilization of the results produced by the DOD S&T program and to devise a methodology to measure the return on investment.6He was motivated in part by the House Committee on Defense Appropriations, which had questioned the efficiency of management and the overall payoff for the part of the Research, Development, Testing and Evaluation (RDT&E) program that pertained to S&T.

The study was conducted by ad hoc teams of military and civilian in-house personnel. Some 20 weapons systems were selected for review and a set of subcommittees was arranged, one for each system. The systems selected for review included air-to-surface, ballistic, and tactical missiles; a strategic transport aircraft; a howitzer; and an anti tank projectile. Data were gathered by questionnaire and evaluated according to the following four criteria:

1. The extent of dependence on recent advances in science or technology. 2. The proportion of any new technology that resulted from DOD financing of science or technology. 3. The management or environmental factors that appear to correlate with high utilization of S&T results. 4. A quantitative measure of the return on investment. The project teams made the following findings with respect to these criteria:91. Markedly improved weapons systems result from skillfully combining a considerable number of scientific and technological advances (Criterion 1).

2. More than 85 percent of the new science or technology utilized was the result of DOD-financed programs (Criterion 2).

3. The utilization factor appears insensitive to environmental or management differences between industry, in-house laboratories, and university-associated S&T centers (Criterion 3).

4. Most utilized new technological information was generated in the process of solving problems identified in advanced or engineering development (Criterion 3).

5. Most utilized new fundamental scientific information came from organized research programs undertaken in response to recognized problems (Criterion 3).

6. Technological inventiveness and the utilization rate are dependent on the recognition of a need, an educated talent pool, capital resources, and an adequate communication path to potential users (Criterion 3).

7. Any crude approximation in measuring cost-performance will tend to be delusory (Criterion 4). With regard to finding number seven, the study failed to find a satisfactory method for assessing cost-benefit or cost-performance from S&T work. To illustrate the difficulty that the study encountered, the report cited the example of the silicon-based integrated circuit. The circuit, invented during the period under review,

revolutionized electronics and information technology and became a crucial part of virtually every system in the arsenal; there was no effective way to subdivide the effects on individual S&T programs. This paper will not attempt to redress this or any other shortcoming of Project Hindsight; Dr. Brown’s goal of quantifying the payoff of DOD investment in research and technology is if anything a loftier target today than it was in 1965. The fundamental purpose of this report, however, closely mirrors that of its predecessor: by examining the development of select Army systems, and in particular those signal technology events that propelled these systems to success, we hope to shed light on the factors that lead defense S&T research to fruition. In addition to sharing a broad goal with the original Hindsight report, this paper also takes from it a similar unit of analysis, the CTE. Hindsight evaluations were based on a concept called a Research and Exploratory Development (RXD) Event. In the original report, a RXD event has the predominant meaning of an event that “defines a scientific or engineering activity during a relatively brief period of time that includes the conception of a new idea and the initial demonstration of its feasibility.”10There may be one or two such events in the development of a component or system, or a whole string of such events. In the case of basic research RXD events, the report distinguishes between undirected (curiosity driven) and directed (problem driven) work. Lastly, the final fabrication of the system component or device “may or may not involve an Event depending on the state of the technological art at the time of fabrication.”11Please note that in our paper we use a definition for our signal events, CTEs, that differs from Hindsight’s RXD event. Most significantly, as noted previously, CTEs can occur at any point in the life cycle; we leave open the possibility that CTEs might result from efforts that have utilized funds other than R&D. U.S. Tank Chronology The British Army first introduced the tank in combat in World War I, at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. Tanks were used with varying degrees of success throughout the remainder of the conflict. The tank’s place as a major factor in warfare was cemented in World War II, when German panzer divisions swept across Europe in 1939–1940. Though the Allies never built a tank as effective as those found in the German ranks, they countered with numerical superiority. Early in the war the Army deployed the M5A1 Stuart light tank, some 8,800 of which were built and used in Africa and the Pacific theater. The Sherman medium tank appeared in late 1942. Though it was significantly overmatched by German heavy tanks, the Sherman was fast and reliable. Over 49,000 of these tanks were built, and thousands were shipped to American allies. The Sherman was in service into the 1950s. As the Soviet Union emerged as the obvious adversary of the future, the Sherman was succeeded by the M46–M47–M48 Patton series of tanks.12The M48 Patton was in service from 1952 to the 1970s. It was replaced as America’s primary tank by the M60 Patton, which incorporated most of the basic design elements of the M48. The M60 weighed 52 tons, could travel 30 miles per hour, and was equipped with a 105mm high-velocity rifled gun. The armor was cast steel. In the mid 1960s, the Army began to develop a main battle tank13to replace the M60.14This undertaking first took the shape of the MBT70 program, a joint venture with the Federal Republic of Germany begun in 1963. This partnership was eventually terminated, and the U.S. program was re designated the XM803. The XM803 mounted a 152mm gun/launcher combination capable of firing both conventional tank munitions and missiles. The project was canceled by the Congress in December 1971 because of high cost, but served, along with the last of the Patton series, the M60A3, as a significant technical predecessor to the Abrams series. The termination of the XM803 program left the M60 as America’s chief tank for the foreseeable future. Yet, despite incremental improvements to the M60, the Army remained convinced that it needed a new tank design. Their main motivation lay across 12It is important to note that heavy tanks like the Patton series were not the only technological contenders to anchor the U.S. armor force. Lighter combat vehicles, like the M41 Walker Bulldog Light Tank and the M551 Armored Reconnaissance Airborne Assault Vehicle (ARAAV), also received programmatic support the intra-German border.15In 1967, the Soviets, already ahead in quantity, fielded the qualitatively superior T–64 tank. The T–64 had its faults, but it boasted a 115mm gun (later upgraded to a 125mm) whose munitions could punch through the M60’s thickest armor. With the Soviet threat in mind, Congress authorized a new effort to develop a main battle tank at the same time it canceled the XM803 program (see timeline of Abrams development at the end of the chapter). The Army set up a task force at the Armor School at Fort Knox, KY. With help from the Advanced Concepts Branch at Tank-Automotive Command (TACOM), the task force identified 19 characteristics that a new tank should possess. It listed them in order of importance, the first five being:16• crew survivability; • surveillance and target acquisition performance; • high probability of hit with first round • time to acquire and hit a target; • cross-country mobility. The task force also issued more specific criteria, such as a 25:1 horsepower (hp) to weight (ton) ratio and a 46–52 ton gross weight.17Furthermore, after the complexity and cost concerns that had contributed to the termination of the MBT70 and XM803 programs, Congress required that unit cost be tightly controlled.18An initial unit cost ceiling of $400,000 (in 1972 dollars) was set; this figure rose to $507,790 (also in 1972 dollars) by the time requests for proposals were issued to industry.19This figure was $70,000 more than the estimated unit cost for the last M60 series tank, the M60A3, and $100,000 less than the estimated cost of the cancelled XM803.20Eight initial design contracts were given, later down-selected to two: General Motors (GM) and Chrysler. The designs drew on advances made in the MBT70 and XM803 programs (for which GM was the prime U.S. contractor), and in the M60A3 (which was built by Chrysler). Chrysler and GM also drew on in-house laboratory R&D on components and design techniques, work that was not tied to any specific vehicle program. The Chrysler design ultimately won the competition, and Chrysler21was given the contract to enter full scale engineering development of what became known as the M1 Abrams main battle tank. Production began in 1979.

Congressional mandate to the field in 8 years, a journey that often took 15 to 20 years for other systems. Over 8,800 Abrams main battle tanks have been produced, primarily for the Army but also for the Marine Corps and foreign nations.23Abrams also have been modified to serve as breaching vehicles, bridging vehicles, and mine-clearers. The United States is buying no newly built Abrams, though portions of the existing fleet receive periodic upgrades. The Abrams’ production timeline is provided below. ABRAMS PRODUCTION TIMELINE 1971 The XM803 program is canceled. 1971 Congress authorizes a study at Fort Knox to develop a main battle tank. The program is eventually designated XM1. 1972 The Fort Knox study team issues a report on proposed characteristics for the new tank. 1973 Contracts are awarded to General Motors’ Detroit Diesel Allison Division and the Defense Division of Chrysler Corporation to develop prototypes of the XM1. 1976 Chrysler’s design wins the competition and is selected to become the new main battle tank. 1980 The first production of the M1 Abrams is completed. The M1 remains in production until 1985. 1982 Chrysler sells its tank-building division to General Dynamics. All future Abrams and Abrams upgrades are built by General Dynamics. 1984 The second Abrams model, the Improved Performance M1 (IPM1), is produced. It remains in production until 1986. The IPM1 was produced to take advantage of various improvements from the M1A1 program (know as the M1E1 program) before the full M1A1 was ready for production. 1985 The third Abrams model, the M1A1, is produced. It remains in production until 1993. Among other upgrades, the M1 105mm gun is replaced with a 120mm gun. 1992 The first M1A2 tanks are produced. Existing M1 and M1A1 tanks are also upgraded to the M1A2 configuration. The great majority of M1A2-configured Abrams are upgraded versions of M1 and M1A1 tanks, but some are new-production tanks. The M1A2 includes an independent thermal viewer for the commander and an Inter vehicular Information System (IVIS), among other upgrades. 1999 The first M1A2 System Enhancement Package (SEP) tanks are delivered to the Army. The M1A2 SEP has an embedded version of the Force XXI Battle Command, Brigade and Below (FBCB2) command and control architecture, improving the appliquéd version found in earlier Abrams. actually XM815, quickly changed to XM1. The tank was known as XM1 throughout its development, until it was type-classified. To improve readability, this report sometimes refers to the Abrams and the Abrams program even in the context of pre–1981 events. 23GlobalSecurity.org, “M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank.” Available online at:

In summary, the first production M1 Abrams weighed 60 tons and produced 1500hp, giving it the 25:1 ratio that the Army required. It had a top speed of 45mph and a cruising range of 275 miles. Also, per Army requirements, its survivability was much improved over the M60. It had more effective armor and superior crew protection features. Like the M60, early versions of the Abrams were equipped with a rifled 105mm gun that could fire a variety of ammunition. It was soon replaced with a more effective 120mmsmoothbore gun. The Abrams has evolved through several successive upgrades, the latest being the M1A2 SEP. After detailing the study methodology in the next chapter, chapters IV–VII identify the CTEs that provided the capabilities that led to the Abrams’ battlefield successes.

The Origins of the M1 Abrams MBT:

Back in October 1973, one event would decisively influence the future of the new American main battle tank: the "Yom Kippur" war in the Middle East. This war involved the largest concentration of tanks in combat since World War 2. After careful investigation of the events that occurred during this conflict, the US Army concluded that the emergence of a new order of weapon lethality was dramatically revealed in the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. Facing the nature of this threat, the new US doctrine set as its priority the defense of NATO Europe against a quantitatively superior Warsaw Pact forces of greatly increased lethality. It accepted force ratios as a primary determinant of battle outcomes and argued the virtues of armored warfare and the combined arms team. This notion of stronger inter-service integration would to be introduced as the "air-land battle" concept in 1976, and to result in the Air Land Battle Doctrine in 1982.

The M1 Abrams tank represented a definitive change in US tank design since World War 2, and its design reflects the objective to be an adequate response to the main threat of that era - the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Warsaw Pact in practically everything when it came to conventional weapons. Until the late seventies/early eighties, NATO wouldn't have a MBT powerful enough in the three main basic tank design areas (firepower, protection, and mobility) to provide the necessary tactical superiority on the battlefield in order to compensate for the numerical inferiority.

However, designing such a weapon was easier said than done. Until then, no nation had been capable of developing a tank decisively superior in firepower, protection and mobility. The bottom line was that tank designers were forced to make compromises between weight and mobility, and this resulted, on the top of the scale, in tanks that had good firepower and an adequate protection, but rather poor mobility (like the British Chieftain), or on the other end of the scale, in tanks which had adequate firepower, mediocre protection, and good mobility (like the French AMX-30/32). The ability to build a tank which excelled in all three basic aspects of tank design was only possible through the incorporation of the new technologies that became available during the seventies.

The way the US Army worked out the development of the new tank was very different than the way the German/American MBT-70 project was approached - instead of trying to build the best tank in the world, they opted for building the best tank within a limited budget. With this perspective in mind, the following directives were established, by order of priority: crew survivability; surveillance and target acquisition performance; first-round and subsequent hit probability; minimal time to acquire and hit; cross-country mobility; complementary armament integration; equipment survivability; crew environment; silhouette; acceleration and deceleration; ammunition and stowage; human factors; production; operational range; speed; diagnostic maintenance aids; growth potential; support equipment; and transportability.

In its quest for the best possible tank design and subsequent development at the lowest costs, the US Army opted for a competitive process between the Chrysler Corporation (which has built the M-60 series) and the General Motors Corporation (which has built the MBT-70), with allowance for alternative solutions. One of the main requirements was to reduce the unit costs compared to the failed MBT-70 project, and this defined what technologies were or were not to be used in the new tank.

In June 1973 contractors were awarded to both the Chrysler Corporation (which has built the M-60 series) and the Detroit Diesel Allison Division of the General Motors Corporation (which has built the MBT-70) to built prototypes of a new tank designated M1, and later named the Abrams tank (after Gen. Creighton Abrams). These tanks were handed over to the US Army for trials in February 1976. In November 1976 it was announced after a four-month delay that the Chrysler tank would be placed in production. Production commenced at the Lima Army Modification Center at Lima in 1979 with the first production tanks being completed in 1980.

The M1 design benefited, since the start, from special armor, thermal imaging sights, advanced gun fire controls, and turbine engines. The new special armor concept was developed by the British Army's research facility in Chobham, England, and was based on a classified system of layers of ceramic composites inside steel armor, mounted on top of a normal steel armor plate. This new armor, which became known as Chobham armor, offered exceptional protection against shaped charge warheads (ATGM's and HEAT ammunition). Consequently, the Ballistics Research Laboratory at Aberdeen Proving Grounds began a crash program to develop a similar improved armor to be incorporated into the new tank. The first production models of the basic M1 tanks issued to the US Army in 1981 weighed in at about sixty tons, combat loaded, and were equipped with normal steel armor plus a new composite special armor (which consisted of layers of both steel and non-steel armor plus heat and shock absorbing materials), capable of defeating HEAT rounds in addition to kinetic energy penetrators.

Although the standard production M1 tanks were designed to accept the German Rheinmetall 120mm gun whenever necessary, they were armed with the same M68A1 105mm rifled gun used on the M60 MBT. The advent of more advanced 105mm ammunition, specially DU penetrators like the improved M833 round, capable of penetrate 420mm of RHA inclined at 60° at 2,000 meters, would make it possible to delay the main gun upgrade until 1985.

The M1 was faster and more maneuverable than its predecessors in the M60 series, while offering a lower, smaller silhouette. Besides the substantial gains in performance, the Textron Lycoming AGT-1500 turbine engine was far more reliable than the diesel tank engines then in use with the Army. There was still another benefit. The engine change, despite a penalty in fuel consumption, also resulted in much quieter operation, so much so that soldiers encountering the tank in early maneuvers started calling it "Whispering Death".

With all these assets, plus a new fire control system that incorporated all the latest technologies (comprising a laser range finder, ballistic computer, gunner's thermal-imaging day and night sight, a muzzle reference sensor to measure gun-tube distortion, and a wind sensor), the M1 Abrams was a gigantic leap forward.

Firepower:

Improvements to the basic M1 Abrams were planned from the very beginning of its development to keep pace with the new Soviet tank designs. Thus, five models were produced. The original model, the basic M1, was produced from 1984 to January 1985. Total production: 2,374 tanks.

The second model, produced from 1984 to 1986, was the Improved Performance M1 (IPM1). The IPM1 was produced to take advantage of various improvements from the M1A1 program, before the full M1A1 was ready for production. These improvements consisted of a reinforced new suspension, various transmission modifications, improved armor protection, and the redesigned M1A1 turret gun mount and bustle rack, among others. The added weight (one ton) decreased performance only slightly.

The third model, the M1A1, or M1 with Block 1 Product Improvement, started in August 1985. In addition to the improvements fitted to the IPM1 tank, the M1A1's major asset was to be the German Rheinmetall 120mm smoothbore cannon. US studies on the gun concluded it was overly complex and expensive by American engineering standards, so a version using fewer parts was developed, and designated the 120mm M256 gun. Along with the new gun came a number of associated changes to the fire control system.

Since the Korean War, the US Army found that the main tactical advantage in tank combat was the ability of seeing and engaging the enemy first - consequently, great emphasis was placed on getting the best acquisition technology possible, and as it turned out, the US pioneered all technologic improvements in this area, since the first image intensification night sights in the sixties, the thermal imaging during the seventies, and finally the millimeter wave multi-sensor of the nineties. The thermal sight had a dramatic effect during the Gulf War, since it enabled US tankers to see not only at night, but also through the "fog-of-war" and dismal weather conditions, like sand storms.

The 120mm M256 gun of the M1A1 tank fires various types of ammunition, the most known being the M829A1 APFSDS-T ammunition (kinetic energy round with long rod penetrator, made of depleted uranium, with a muzzle velocity of 1,676 m/sec, and a maximum effective range of 3,500 meters, but engagement ranges approaching 4,000 meters were successfully demonstrated during Operation Desert Storm), also known as the "Silver Bullet" of Desert Storm fame. The M829A1 ammunition entered service in 1991.

Project Mexpo, (Mid East Exploitation), the acquisition of many new items of Soviet Equipment included the SAGGER anti-tank missile and many T 62 tanks. The detailed analysis of this material heavily influenced the development of future weapon system to include the M1 tanks.

The M1 tank is protected against nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) warfare and is equipped with a 200 SCFM, clean conditioned air system, a Radiac Radiological Warning Device, AN/VDR-1, and a chemical agent detector. The crew are equipped with protective suits and face masks. Additional features of the M1A1 are increased armor protection, suspension improvements, and an NBC protection system that provides additional survivability in a contaminated environment.

The Threat

T62 Series Tanks

The T-62 is a further step in the line of development begun with the T-54/55 series, entering production in 1961 and remaining in production until 1975. It became the standard main battle tank in Soviet tank and motorized rifle units, gradually replacing the T-54 and T-55. The T-62A variant first appeared in 1970. By the 1980s it was replaced by the new generation T-64/T-72/T-80 tanks as the first-line Soviet main battle tank.

DESCRIPTION:

The T-62 medium tank has a fully tracked, five-road wheeled chassis with close spaces between the three front road wheels and large gaps separating the third, fourth, and fifth road wheels. The drive sprocket is at the rear and the idler at the front, and there are no track return rollers. The rounded turret, mounted over the third road wheel, is more smoothly cast and more nearly egg-shaped than that of the T-54/55 series. The commander's cupola on the left is cast with the turret and not bolted on as in the case of the T-54/55. The loader's hatch on the right is also located farther forward.

The 115-mm smoothbore main gun has a longer and thinner tube than the 100-mmgunof the T-54/55, and its bore evacuator is located about two-thirds of the way up the gun tube from the turret. There is also a 7.62-mm coaxial machine gun, and model T-62A also mounts a 12.7-mm antiaircraft machine gun at the loader's hatch position.

A gunner's IR searchlight is mounted on the right above the main gun, and a smaller IR searchlight is mounted on the commander's cupola. The driver's hatch is located in front of the turret on the left side of the flat, low-silhouetted hull.

CAPABILITIES:

Like the T-55, the T-62 has a 580 hp V-12 water-cooled diesel engine, which gives it a cruising range of 320 km cross-country or 450 km on paved roads with integral fuel cells and 450 km cross-country or 650 km on paved roads with two 200-liter auxiliary fuel tanks. It also shares the snorkeling and smokescreen generating capabilities of the T-54/55 series and has the same PAZ radiation detection system as the T-55. Some T-62s may have been retrofitted with full NBC collective protection systems (air filtration and overpressure). Most models have the same IR night sight and driving equipment and the same fire control equipment as the T-54/55, although some T-62s have been retrofitted with a passive night sight replacing the gunner's active IR sight, and a laser rangefinder is believed to have been developed to replace the stadiametric reticule rangefinder.

The most significant improvement over the T-54/55 tanks, however, is the 115-mm smoothbore main gun which fires a hypervelocity, armor-piercing, fin-stabilized, discarding sabot (HVAPFSDS) round with a muzzle velocity of 1,61 5 meters per second. The penetrator flies in a very flat trajectory and is therefore extremely accurate out to a maximum effective range of 1,600 meters. Although the specific number of each type of round varies with the anticipated tactical situation, the 40-round basic load typically includes 12 HVAPFSDS rounds, 6 HEAT rounds, and 22 HE rounds. The T-62 also has an automatic shell ejector system which is activated by the recoil of the main gun and ejects spent casings through a port in the rear of the turret.

Available improvements include a hull bottom reinforced against mines, rubber track pads, and a thermal sleeve for the gun. There are thermal sights available for installation which permit night launch of ATGMs. The 1K13 sight is both night sight and ATGM launcher sight; however, it cannot be used for both functions simultaneously. Optional sights and fire control systems include the Israeli El-Op Red Tiger and Matador FCS, Swedish Nobel Tech T-series sight, and German Atlas MOLF. The British Marconi Digital FCS, South African Tiger, and Belgian SABCA Titan offer upgraded function. One of the best is the Slovenian EFCS-3 integrated FCS. A variety of thermal sights is available. They include the Russian Agava, French SAGEM-produced ALIS and Namut sight from Peleng.

LIMITATIONS:

The T-62 has all the limitations of the T-55: cramped crew compartment, thin armor, crude gun control equipment (on most models), limited depression of main gun, and vulnerable fuel and ammunition storage areas. The automatic spent-cartridge ejection system can cause dangerous accumulations of carbon monoxide and possibly actual physical injury to the crew from cartridge cases projected against the edge of a poorly aligned ejection port and rebounding into the crew compartment. Opening the ejection port under NBC conditions would also expose the crew to contamination.

Each time the gun is fired, the tube must go into detente for cartridge ejection, and the power traverse of the turret is inoperable during ejection and reloading operations. Since manual elevation and traverse are rather slow and not effective for tracking a moving target, rapid fire and second-hit capabilities are limited. The turret also cannot be traversed with the driver's hatch open. Although the tank commander may override the gunner and traverse the turret, he cannot fire the main gun from his position. He is unable to override the gunner in elevation of the main gun, causing target acquisition problems.

To fire the 12.7-mm antiaircraft machinegun, the loader must be partially exposed, making him vulnerable to suppressive fires, and he must also leave his main gun loading duties unattended.

VARIANTS

T-62A: Besides the standard 7.62-mm PKT coaxial machine gun with a range of 1,000 meters, the T-62A version features a 12.7-mm DShK antiaircraft machine gun with a range of 1,500 meters against ground targets and a slant range of 1,000 meters against aircraft. The T-62A also has a stabilized main gun, which enables the gunner to track and fire on the move with significantly improved accuracy.

T-62K: Command tank models also have a land navigation system which includes a gyroscopic compass and a calculator giving continuous enroute readout of the tank's location (in relation to its point of origin) and its distance from and azimuth to a predetermined objective.

T-62M adds protection, FCS and ATGM capability.

T-62 variants with a V-46 T-72-type engine add -1 to their designation.

T-62M1: Variant with Volna FCS but no missile launch capability.

T-62D: Variant with the Drozd APS vs ERA.

T-62MK: Command variant.

T-62MV: Version with ERA in place of the bra armor. The ERA includes Kontakt ERA and Kontakt-5 2nd-Generation ERA.

T-62 Ch’onma-Ho: Beginning in the late 1970s, North Korea began to produce a modified version of the 115mm gunned T-62 tank. Based on general trends and photography of armed forces parades, it is clear that North Korea has made considerable modifications to the basic Soviet and Chinese designs in its own production.

T72 Tank

The T-72, which entered production in 1971, was first seen in public in 1977. The T-72, introduced in the early 1970s, is not a further development of the T-64, but rather a parallel design chosen as a high-production tank complementing the T-64. The T-72 retains the low silhouette of the T-54/55/62 series, featuring a conventional layout with integrated fuel cells and stowage containers which give a streamlined appearance to the fenders. While the T-64 was deployed only in forward-deployed Soviet units, the T-72 was deployed within the USSR and exported to non-Soviet Warsaw Pact armies and several other countries. In addition to production in the USSR it has been built under license in Czechoslovakia, India, Poland and former Yugoslavia.

DESCRIPTION:

The T-72 medium tank is similar in general appearance to the T-64.

The T-72 has six large, die-cast, rubber-coated road wheels and three track return rollers. It has a 14-tooth drive sprocket and a single-pin track with rubber-bushed pins.

The gunner's IR searchlight is mounted to the right of the main gun. The 12.7-mm NSV anti-aircraft machine gun has a rotating mount, and there is no provision for firing it from within the tank. There are normally only a few small stowage boxes on the outside of the turret, and a single short snorkel is stowed on the left side of the turret.

The T-72 has a larger engine compartment than the T-64, and the radiator grill is near the rear of the hull.

CAPABILITIES:

The T-72 has greater mobility than the T-62. The V-12 diesel engine has an output of 780 hp. This engine appears to be remarkably smoke-free and smooth-running, having eliminated the excessive vibration which was said to cause high crew fatigue in the T-62. Although the engine is larger than that of the T-64, the heavier (41 mt) T-72 is believed to have approximately the same road speed as the T-64. The T-72B1 is powered by a multi-fuel V-12 piston air-cooled 840 hp engine that will run on three fuels: Diesel, Benzene or Kerosene. Two 200-liter auxiliary fuel drums can be fitted on the rear of the hull. The T-72 can be fitted with a snorkel for deep fording, and takes about 20 minutes to prepare for amphibious use.

The T-72 has better armor protection than the T-62, due to the use of layered armor and other features discussed above under T-64 capabilities. The advanced passive armour package of the T-72M and T-72M1 can sustain direct hits from the 105mm gun equipped M1 Abrams at up to 2,000 meter range. The later T-72Ms and T-72M1s are equipped with laser rangefinders ensuring high hit probabilities at ranges of 2,000 meters and below. The turret has conventional cast armor with a maximum thickness of 280-mm, the nose is about 80-mm thick and the glacis is 200-mm thick laminate armor. Besides the PAZ radiation detection system, the T-72 has an antiradiation liner (except on export models) and a collective NBC filtration and overpressure system.

The T-72 has the same integral smoke generating capability as earlier T-54/55/62, tanks, and variants have been observed with smoke grenade projectors mounted on the front of the turret.

The T-72 employs the same armament, ammunition, and integrated fire control as the T-64. The low, rounded turret mounts a 125mm smooth bore gun with a carousel automatic loader mounted on the floor and rear wall of the turret. The 125mm gun common to all the T-72 models is capable of penetrating the M1 Abrams armour at a range of up to 1,000 meters. The more recent BK-27 HEAT round offers a triple-shaped charge warhead and increased penetration against conventional armors and ERA. The BK-29 round, with a hard penetrator in the nose is designed for use against reactive armor, and as an MP round has fragmentation effects. If the BK-29 HEAT-MP is used, it may substitute for Frag-HE (as with NATO countries) or complement Frag-HE. With three round natures (APFSDS-T, HEAT-MP, ATGMs) in the autoloader vs four, more antitank rounds would available for the higher rate of fire.

The infra-red searchlight on the T-72 is mounted on the right side of the main armament, versus on the left on the earlier T-64. The 1K13-49 sight is both night sight and ATGM launch sight. However, it cannot be used for both functions simultaneously. A variety of thermal sights is available. They include the Russian Agava-2, French SAGEM-produced ALIS and Namut sight from Peleng. Thermal gunner night sights are available which permit night launch of ATGMs.

VARIANTS

T-72: Original Russian tank from which T-72 variants were derived.

T-72A: The Russian variant differs from T-72 with the TPDK-1 LRF, added sideskirts, additional armor on the turret front and top, smoke grenade launchers, internal changes, and a slight weight increase.

T-72B : has the thickened frontal turret armor and is commonly known in the United States as the Dolly Parton.

T-72BK: Commander's variant with additional radios

T-72BM: Version with 2nd Generation Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armor similar to that on the T-90. This system is being fielded and is available for export.

T-72M: Original Polish and former-Czechoslovakian T-72-series tank from which Polish/Czechoslovakian T-72M1 was derived. T-72M differs from T-72 in replacing the right-side coincident rangefinder with a centerline-mounted TPDK-1 LRF.

T-72M1: Russian export version and Polish/Czechoslovakian counterparts. Versions with Kontact ERA are known as T-72AV /T-72 M1V. Some countries have inventories of T-72, T-72M and T-72M1, with different versions of each variant. Also, many variants were upgraded or modified. Some T-72M1s do not have smoke grenade launchers or track skirts. Some T-72s/T-72Ms have smoke grenade launchers. More reliable discriminators are armor and rangefinder/FCS.

T-72S/Shilden: Russian export T-72A upgraded to be comparable to the T-72BM standard. Although similar to the T-72BM, it may have less turret front protection. The early T-72S tank has Kontakt ERA.

T-72BV: with explosive reaction armor packages fitted to the hull and turret. The glacis plate is covered with a layer of single ERA blocks while the turret is covered by one, two or three layers with one being the more usual.

T-90: Successor to T-72BM. This tank has been